The trees have to go somewhere: The reclamation of private space for public benefit
If you ever walk through the West Side of Providence, you will notice its lack of green space. Past Brown University’s campus, down College Hill, and across downtown lie a vast span of asphalt and paved parking lots that encompass homes and multi-family units. However, this was not always the case.
This final project in Critical Urban Theory will look at the obliteration and the reemergence of trees and green spaces in Providence, RI. Through policy implementation over the past 90 years, the city has reduced the number of trees unwittingly by increasing their public jurisdiction over private space. Now, after much scientific research, a dose of morality, and peer pressure, the city is attempting to increase their tree population and green spaces through the same means that they got rid of them— city ordinances.
This final project in Critical Urban Theory will look at the obliteration and the reemergence of trees and green spaces in Providence, RI. Through policy implementation over the past 90 years, the city has reduced the number of trees unwittingly by increasing their public jurisdiction over private space. Now, after much scientific research, a dose of morality, and peer pressure, the city is attempting to increase their tree population and green spaces through the same means that they got rid of them— city ordinances.
The rise of asphalt backyards
Providence lost its trees and green spaces 100 years ago. In the span of 30 years, Providence reshaped itself to hold more than 260,000 residents, the most that the city had ever held.[1] However, through reshaping society, both physically and morally, Providence changed its arrangement. In 1901, the City of Providence had 50,000 trees but by 1970 that number fell to only had 16,000. [2]
In the early 20th century, Providence was a bustling capital city. Automobile ownership was in its early years and trolley cars were used regularly. In the 1895 map in Figure A depicting a bird’s-eye view of Providence, one can see swarms of horse drawn carriages and trolleys used throughout the city for transportation. What else is clearly visible?—trees.[3]
In the early 20th century, Providence was a bustling capital city. Automobile ownership was in its early years and trolley cars were used regularly. In the 1895 map in Figure A depicting a bird’s-eye view of Providence, one can see swarms of horse drawn carriages and trolleys used throughout the city for transportation. What else is clearly visible?—trees.[3]
Housing stock and lifestyle changed drastically in Providence at the turn of the century. In 1890, 50% of housing were single-family homes and two-family homes made up 41%. By 1930, there was a shift – a slight rise in single family homes to 54% and a huge leap in three-family homes from 5.4% to 16.4%; 60% of the city’s families lived in three family-homes [4].
There is no mention of cars in any city documents until 1919. In the 1921 ordinances and resolutions, a case against the city by John Lockhart is noted. Mr. Lockhart wanted a permit for a parking garage for 100 automobiles. In 1919, 190 residents protested the proposed garage; only 50 of those residents had cars.[5]
In 1929, Providence, RI banned on-street parking through a city ordinance. There is little data as to why the city banned on-street parking, but some suggest that this was due to small street sizes, horse and buggy traffic, and snow storm protocols.[6]
There is no mention of cars in any city documents until 1919. In the 1921 ordinances and resolutions, a case against the city by John Lockhart is noted. Mr. Lockhart wanted a permit for a parking garage for 100 automobiles. In 1919, 190 residents protested the proposed garage; only 50 of those residents had cars.[5]
In 1929, Providence, RI banned on-street parking through a city ordinance. There is little data as to why the city banned on-street parking, but some suggest that this was due to small street sizes, horse and buggy traffic, and snow storm protocols.[6]
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Mass production due to World War II yielded increased automobile ownership.[7] Common social trends such as white flight increased the need for multi-car ownership in order move around Providence. Parking lots were the results of the lack of on-street parking and the reduction of mass transportation ridership in the 1950s.[8]
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6There is little known about why required parking for homes was a stipulation in the zoning ordinance. The earliest Providence Zoning Ordinance that requires parking dates back to 1952. In this ordinance, homeowners and landlords were obligated to provide enough parking for tenants. By the 1960s over 60% of Providence residents lived in 2-4 family homes. Concurrently, 50% of homes had at least one car. The introduction of cars and the reduction of on-street parking made private parking a necessity.[9]
The rise in car ownership throughout the City contributed to the reduction of trees, green spaces, and other pervious surfaces. In the 1970s, there were no paving limitations for homeowners or businesses, which meant that any street surface could be paved over. [10] The 1994 City zoning code required multi-family homes to have 1.5 parking spots per tenant. In turn, this created a cultural change in the City that emphasized private transportation over public transportation. [11]
The rise in car ownership throughout the City contributed to the reduction of trees, green spaces, and other pervious surfaces. In the 1970s, there were no paving limitations for homeowners or businesses, which meant that any street surface could be paved over. [10] The 1994 City zoning code required multi-family homes to have 1.5 parking spots per tenant. In turn, this created a cultural change in the City that emphasized private transportation over public transportation. [11]
Reducing Private space through Ordinances
Before the first Providence City Code Ordinance and Zoning Ordinance, there was a clear delineation of what public and private spaces were. Homes and streets were not subject to the same city policies. After the first zoning ordinance was passed in the 1920s, the City slowly began encroaching on private space by requiring building permits and creating guidelines as to how a home should look. Now, a house’s façade, the internal structure, and surrounding area are all subject to a city’s requirements. There are plenty of spaces in a city that similarly blur the lines of public and private space such malls, train stations, and sidewalks—hybrid spaces. In Sylke Nissen’s “Urban Transformation,” hybrid spaces such as these are characterized as having “partial or complete transfer of state or local rights to private or commercial actors as well as by the reduction or even loss of public control.” [pg, 12]. This should also mean that a hybrid space can be a space that has partially lost its private property right to public entities.
While Providence's Zoning Ordinances ban on-street parking, the Code Ordinance limits car placement on private property, furthering the city’s sovereignty on private property. All automobiles must be parked in the back of residences as stated in Article 14, section 4 A-1 of the 2014 Providence Ordinances:
“For single-family, two-family, semi-detached, and three-family dwellings where there is alley access, all vehicle parking areas shall be accessed from the alley and all vehicle parking areas shall be located in the rear yard.”
For multi-family residential units, of which a majority of the Providence population lives in, parking arrangements interfere with green space in backyards. In order to provide parking spots for residents, owners have to asphalt their backyards, reducing pervious surfaces. [13]
While Providence's Zoning Ordinances ban on-street parking, the Code Ordinance limits car placement on private property, furthering the city’s sovereignty on private property. All automobiles must be parked in the back of residences as stated in Article 14, section 4 A-1 of the 2014 Providence Ordinances:
“For single-family, two-family, semi-detached, and three-family dwellings where there is alley access, all vehicle parking areas shall be accessed from the alley and all vehicle parking areas shall be located in the rear yard.”
For multi-family residential units, of which a majority of the Providence population lives in, parking arrangements interfere with green space in backyards. In order to provide parking spots for residents, owners have to asphalt their backyards, reducing pervious surfaces. [13]
When the City of Providence banned on-street parking, it banned the use of parking in front of one’s own home, even though the owner pays taxes. This similar dismissal of private and public property rules is seen in other areas. For example, snow and ice removal is required on sidewalks in front homes, even though it is public property and under public jurisdiction.[14][15] Parking in front of one’s home is different than parking in a public spot to go to work or shop. Public parking spaces are normally metered (taxed) in order to reduce individual overuse of these spaces.
Ordinances are put in place to both protect and increase the jurisdiction that a city has over private property, however indirect and inconsequential they seem. The ban on on-street parking furthers the city’s jurisdiction over private spaces; it creates a need for private parking on homeowners’ lots. The city would argue that this is a use of a private space to help the public good reduce crime and allow emergency vehicles to pass through streets easily. It is the city’s duty to create laws and the homeowners’ duty to obey. However, what if an ordinance puts a city and its residents at risk? Can a resident fight against an ordinance if it diminishes their health and wellbeing?
Ordinances are put in place to both protect and increase the jurisdiction that a city has over private property, however indirect and inconsequential they seem. The ban on on-street parking furthers the city’s jurisdiction over private spaces; it creates a need for private parking on homeowners’ lots. The city would argue that this is a use of a private space to help the public good reduce crime and allow emergency vehicles to pass through streets easily. It is the city’s duty to create laws and the homeowners’ duty to obey. However, what if an ordinance puts a city and its residents at risk? Can a resident fight against an ordinance if it diminishes their health and wellbeing?
The effect of no trees on the City
While many were focused on the creation of more parking spots during the 20th century, few were concerned about the effects. Due to the unforeseen exclusion of green space and trees, the City is suffering from a heat island effect, an increased ground temperature due to a lack of tree coverage. Currently, the City has an average of 22% tree coverage, with more trees in affluent neighborhoods.[16] In NASA’s heat island analysis of Providence, the city’s surface temperature is 20 degrees higher than surrounding areas. This impacts both the health and safety of all residents; heat islands “increase the mortality of elderly people and those with pre-existing respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses”.[17] The EPA estimates that mortalities due to heat exposure have caused more death than “hurricanes, lighting, tornadoes, floods, and earthquakes combined.”[18] As the city gets hotter, death rates will increases. Rhode Island already faces a 25% rise in emergency room visits on days that are 85F vs. 75F .[19] Though retired ordinances unknowingly ignored future negative externalities, new laws present promise.
The new 2014 zoning code outlines a number of changes, with the City hoping to increase average tree coverage from 22% to 30% .[20] The code reduces the number of parking spots required by multi-unit housing. It also requires owners of new development to include trees and green spaces or make arrangements to produce some delineation of gardening in another area of the city. In the future, the city may also dis-incentivize the use of asphalt on properties by creating a parking tax. This effectively makes planting trees and installation of green space a private matter, not a public concern. However, it is the public that benefits from increasing green space within the city.
The new 2014 zoning code outlines a number of changes, with the City hoping to increase average tree coverage from 22% to 30% .[20] The code reduces the number of parking spots required by multi-unit housing. It also requires owners of new development to include trees and green spaces or make arrangements to produce some delineation of gardening in another area of the city. In the future, the city may also dis-incentivize the use of asphalt on properties by creating a parking tax. This effectively makes planting trees and installation of green space a private matter, not a public concern. However, it is the public that benefits from increasing green space within the city.
What does an ordinance change mean for a property owner?
While a property owner has the right to choose what goes on their property, they have to have minimum tree coverage that benefits the entire community, the city, the state, and the world. City Forester, Doug Stills, describes in a Q&A how the ordinance is effective at increasing the tree coverage. Any new development must meet the tree requirement. Older buildings are grandfathered in. However, if a building gets approval for restoration, an addition, or any other work requiring a permit, the building must acquiesce to the tree and pervious land ordinance. This, in turn, should help to increase the tree coverage of the City. [21]
Providence is also selling rights for people to park in the street overnight through parking permits for $100-200 a year. This attempts to erase the city ordinance that made residents pave their backyards. Unfortunately, it comes too late to change the social and physical implications on the city starting in the 1950s, such as the mass exodus of whites to suburbs and the necessity to drive into the city due to the lack of public transit.[22]
The City has begun to right its wrongs. In a discussion with Robert Azar—Providence’s City Planner, he stated that the City has been incrementally reducing the impervious surfaces within the city. The first instance of a sustainability ordinance, focused on improving tree coverage, was created in 2003. The newest 2014 zoning code continues this adoption of sustainability practices. The code has zoning ordinances, written by Azar, that stress tree planting and pervious surfaces. The city, separate from the planning department, has also introduced permitted on street parking, which is meant to alleviate many of the ordinances that promoted asphalt throughout the city. [23]
Providence understands the implication of the old zoning ordinance on the health of the city. Creating a city that promotes sustainability through the addition of trees and pervious surfaces is a moral obligation, not just an environmental obligation; becoming a sustainable city is a social responsibility, shows ethical civil virtue, and helps to promote healthy living. However, sustainability goes beyond just the city. The impact is one that can be felt around the world. Peter Block, a Cincinnati community consultant, would argue that this very act of creating sustainability “brings an uplifting moral and life- affirming gift” to communities and that public officials are doing “righteous work” by creating sustainable environments.[24]
There has been a shift in the loyalties to the City of Providence that can be attributed to creation of sustainable ordinances. Original ordinances were meant to benefit business. A private parking lot’s cost-benefit analysis shows that a parking lot, in Downtown Providence, is the most economically smart decision a building owner can make.[25] A dilapidated building maybe knocked down in order to create an impervious parking, rather than operate at a low return rate. Now, the ordinances are attempting to provide city dwellers with a cleaner city through the required addition of trees and pervious surfaces, even on parking lots.
City ordinances can be both repressive and empowering– a true conundrum. In the case of the on-street parking ban, the city created this ordinance as a safety measure that consequently led to the creation of parking lots and asphalt covered backyards. The expansion of tree coverage and reduction of parking does the reverse while still maintaining the City’s control over private property. However, ordinances are never perfect. By placing the power to change within the hands of citizens, the city removes its accountability of government to reduce mortalities due to the original ordinances. It authorizes individuals to take back their backyards to utilize private space to help the public wellbeing.
It is clear that the city now serves a new population—the citizens of the Providence. Through its original ordinance, Providence created a more vulnerable city that affected both residents and properties. Now, the City is changing to become a more environmentally friendly space. Yet, this change in allegiance does not affect the soul purpose of the City's ordinances. Regardless of the regulation, all who reside within the city still have to adhere to its governance.
Providence is also selling rights for people to park in the street overnight through parking permits for $100-200 a year. This attempts to erase the city ordinance that made residents pave their backyards. Unfortunately, it comes too late to change the social and physical implications on the city starting in the 1950s, such as the mass exodus of whites to suburbs and the necessity to drive into the city due to the lack of public transit.[22]
The City has begun to right its wrongs. In a discussion with Robert Azar—Providence’s City Planner, he stated that the City has been incrementally reducing the impervious surfaces within the city. The first instance of a sustainability ordinance, focused on improving tree coverage, was created in 2003. The newest 2014 zoning code continues this adoption of sustainability practices. The code has zoning ordinances, written by Azar, that stress tree planting and pervious surfaces. The city, separate from the planning department, has also introduced permitted on street parking, which is meant to alleviate many of the ordinances that promoted asphalt throughout the city. [23]
Providence understands the implication of the old zoning ordinance on the health of the city. Creating a city that promotes sustainability through the addition of trees and pervious surfaces is a moral obligation, not just an environmental obligation; becoming a sustainable city is a social responsibility, shows ethical civil virtue, and helps to promote healthy living. However, sustainability goes beyond just the city. The impact is one that can be felt around the world. Peter Block, a Cincinnati community consultant, would argue that this very act of creating sustainability “brings an uplifting moral and life- affirming gift” to communities and that public officials are doing “righteous work” by creating sustainable environments.[24]
There has been a shift in the loyalties to the City of Providence that can be attributed to creation of sustainable ordinances. Original ordinances were meant to benefit business. A private parking lot’s cost-benefit analysis shows that a parking lot, in Downtown Providence, is the most economically smart decision a building owner can make.[25] A dilapidated building maybe knocked down in order to create an impervious parking, rather than operate at a low return rate. Now, the ordinances are attempting to provide city dwellers with a cleaner city through the required addition of trees and pervious surfaces, even on parking lots.
City ordinances can be both repressive and empowering– a true conundrum. In the case of the on-street parking ban, the city created this ordinance as a safety measure that consequently led to the creation of parking lots and asphalt covered backyards. The expansion of tree coverage and reduction of parking does the reverse while still maintaining the City’s control over private property. However, ordinances are never perfect. By placing the power to change within the hands of citizens, the city removes its accountability of government to reduce mortalities due to the original ordinances. It authorizes individuals to take back their backyards to utilize private space to help the public wellbeing.
It is clear that the city now serves a new population—the citizens of the Providence. Through its original ordinance, Providence created a more vulnerable city that affected both residents and properties. Now, the City is changing to become a more environmentally friendly space. Yet, this change in allegiance does not affect the soul purpose of the City's ordinances. Regardless of the regulation, all who reside within the city still have to adhere to its governance.
Special thanks to Robert Azar at the Providence Planning Department.
Bibliography:
1. Greenwood, Richard. "Providence One Hundred Years Ago." Providence, Rhode Island Archives. https://www.providenceri.com/archives/providence-one-hundred-years-ago-the-industrial-0.
2. Marritz, Leda. "Unintended Consequences: Did Fighting the Mob Take Down Providence’s Trees?" Deeproot. Last modified November 25, 2013.
3. Chapin, J.R. Providence 1895 Bird’s Eye View. 1895. Photograph.
4. Raub, Patrica. "Another pattern of urban living, multifamily housing in Providence, 1890-1930." Rhode Island History 48, no. 1 (February 1990).
5. Resolutions and Ordinances of the City Council of the City of Providence with Reports and Finished Business in the Board of Aldermen and Common Council. N.p.: n.p., 1921.
6. The City of Providence, RI. Creating a frame work for overnight residential permit parking. Providence, RI: n.p., 2015. https://providenceri.com/efile/1555.
7. Encyclopedia Britannica. "Automobile Industry." In Encyclopedia Britannica.
8. RIPTA. "History of Transit Ridership." http://www.ripta.com/history-of-transit-ridership-in-rhode-island.
9. Social Explorer. "Social Explorer: Providence, RI Data on housing units and car ownership." Map. http://www.socialexplorer.com/.
10. Azar, Robert. Interview by the author. Providence, RI. May 18, 2016.
11. The City of Providence, RI. ZONING ORDINANCES City of PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. Providence, RI: n.p., 1994.
12. Sylke, Nissen. "Urban transformation from public and private space to spaces of hybrid character." Sociologický ?asopis/Czech Sociological Review, 2008, 1129-49.
13. The City of Providence, RI. ZONING ORDINANCES City of PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. Providence, RI: n.p., 2014.
14. SECTION 23-13. The City of Providence, RI. CODE OF ORDINANCES City of PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. Providence, RI: n.p., 2014.
15.SECTION 23-16. The City of Providence, RI. CODE OF ORDINANCES City of PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. Providence, RI: n.p., 2014.
16.The City of Providence. Providence's UrbanForest: Structure, Effects and Values. Providence, RI: n.p., 2014.
https://www.itreetools.org/resources/reports/iTreeEcoProv2014.pdf.
17. NASA. "Satellites Pinpoint Drivers of Urban Heat Islands in the Northeast." Last modified December 13, 2010. http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/heat-island-sprawl.html.
18. See Above.
19. Brown University. Climate change and a hotter Rhode Island: As days warm, emergency visits, deaths rise. N.p.: n.p., 2015. https://www.brown.edu/academics/institute-environment-society/news/story/climate-change-and-hotter-rhode-island-days-warm-emergency-visits-deaths-rise.
20.The City of Providence, RI. ZONING ORDINANCES City of PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. Providence, RI: n.p., 2014.
21. Stills, Doug. E-mail interview by the author. Providence, RI. May 10, 2016.
22. The City of Providence, RI. Creating a frame work for overnight residential permit parking. Providence, RI: n.p., 2015. https://providenceri.com/efile/1555.
23. Azar, Robert. Interview by the author. Providence, RI. May 18, 2016.
24. Reid, Randall. "The Moral Imperative for Sustainable Communities." Florida League of Cities. Last modified 2009.
25. Azar, Robert. Interview by the author. Providence, RI. May 18, 2016.
Bibliography:
1. Greenwood, Richard. "Providence One Hundred Years Ago." Providence, Rhode Island Archives. https://www.providenceri.com/archives/providence-one-hundred-years-ago-the-industrial-0.
2. Marritz, Leda. "Unintended Consequences: Did Fighting the Mob Take Down Providence’s Trees?" Deeproot. Last modified November 25, 2013.
3. Chapin, J.R. Providence 1895 Bird’s Eye View. 1895. Photograph.
4. Raub, Patrica. "Another pattern of urban living, multifamily housing in Providence, 1890-1930." Rhode Island History 48, no. 1 (February 1990).
5. Resolutions and Ordinances of the City Council of the City of Providence with Reports and Finished Business in the Board of Aldermen and Common Council. N.p.: n.p., 1921.
6. The City of Providence, RI. Creating a frame work for overnight residential permit parking. Providence, RI: n.p., 2015. https://providenceri.com/efile/1555.
7. Encyclopedia Britannica. "Automobile Industry." In Encyclopedia Britannica.
8. RIPTA. "History of Transit Ridership." http://www.ripta.com/history-of-transit-ridership-in-rhode-island.
9. Social Explorer. "Social Explorer: Providence, RI Data on housing units and car ownership." Map. http://www.socialexplorer.com/.
10. Azar, Robert. Interview by the author. Providence, RI. May 18, 2016.
11. The City of Providence, RI. ZONING ORDINANCES City of PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. Providence, RI: n.p., 1994.
12. Sylke, Nissen. "Urban transformation from public and private space to spaces of hybrid character." Sociologický ?asopis/Czech Sociological Review, 2008, 1129-49.
13. The City of Providence, RI. ZONING ORDINANCES City of PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. Providence, RI: n.p., 2014.
14. SECTION 23-13. The City of Providence, RI. CODE OF ORDINANCES City of PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. Providence, RI: n.p., 2014.
15.SECTION 23-16. The City of Providence, RI. CODE OF ORDINANCES City of PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. Providence, RI: n.p., 2014.
16.The City of Providence. Providence's UrbanForest: Structure, Effects and Values. Providence, RI: n.p., 2014.
https://www.itreetools.org/resources/reports/iTreeEcoProv2014.pdf.
17. NASA. "Satellites Pinpoint Drivers of Urban Heat Islands in the Northeast." Last modified December 13, 2010. http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/heat-island-sprawl.html.
18. See Above.
19. Brown University. Climate change and a hotter Rhode Island: As days warm, emergency visits, deaths rise. N.p.: n.p., 2015. https://www.brown.edu/academics/institute-environment-society/news/story/climate-change-and-hotter-rhode-island-days-warm-emergency-visits-deaths-rise.
20.The City of Providence, RI. ZONING ORDINANCES City of PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. Providence, RI: n.p., 2014.
21. Stills, Doug. E-mail interview by the author. Providence, RI. May 10, 2016.
22. The City of Providence, RI. Creating a frame work for overnight residential permit parking. Providence, RI: n.p., 2015. https://providenceri.com/efile/1555.
23. Azar, Robert. Interview by the author. Providence, RI. May 18, 2016.
24. Reid, Randall. "The Moral Imperative for Sustainable Communities." Florida League of Cities. Last modified 2009.
25. Azar, Robert. Interview by the author. Providence, RI. May 18, 2016.